Redheaded Pharoah

http://www.white-history.com/earlson/index.htm
Redheaded Pharaoh Ramesses II
by
Karl Earlson
Pharaoh Ramesses II

Pharaoh Ramesses II (of the 19th Dynasty), is generally considered to
be the most powerful and influential King that ever reigned in Egypt.
He is one of the few rulers who has earned the epithet "the Great".
Subsequently, his racial origins are of extreme interest.

In 1975, the Egyptian government allowed the French to take Ramesses'
mummy to Paris for conservation work. Numerous other tests were
performed, to determine Ramesses' precise racial affinities, largely
because the Senegalese scholar Cheikh Anta Diop, was claiming at the
time that Ramesses was black. Once the work had been completed, the
mummy was returned in a hermetically sealed casket, and it has
remained largely hidden from public view ever since, concealed in the
bowels of the Cairo Museum. The results of the study were published in
a lavishly illustrated work, which was edited by L. Balout, C. Roubet
and C. Desroches-Noblecourt, and was titled La Momie de Ramsès II:
Contribution Scientifique à l'Égyptologie (1985).

Professor P. F. Ceccaldi, with a research team behind him, studied
some hairs which were removed from the mummy's scalp. Ramesses II was
90 years-old when he died, and his hair had turned white. Ceccaldi
determined that the reddish-yellow colour of the mummy's hair had been
brought about by its being dyed with a dilute henna solution; it
proved to be an example of the cosmetic attentions of the embalmers.
However, traces of the hair's original colour (in youth), remain in
the roots, even into advanced old age. Microscopic examinations proved
that the hair roots contained traces of natural red pigments, and that
therefore, during his youth, Ramesses II had been red-haired. It was
concluded that these red pigments did not result from the hair somehow
fading, or otherwise altering post-mortem, but did indeed represent
Ramesses' natural hair colour. Ceccaldi also studied a cross-section
of the hairs, and he determined from their oval shape, that Ramesses
had been "cymotrich" (wavy-haired). Finally, he stated that such a
combination of features showed that Ramesses had been a "leucoderm"
(white-skinned person). [Balout, et al. (1985) 254-257.]

Balout and Roubet were under no illusions as to the significance of
this discovery, and they concluded as follows:

"After having achieved this immense work, an important scientific
conclusion remains to be drawn: the anthropological study and the
microscopic analysis of hair, carried out by four laboratories:
Judiciary Medecine (Professor Ceccaldi), Société L'Oréal, Atomic
Energy Commission, and Institut Textile de France showed that Ramses
II was a 'leucoderm', that is a fair-skinned man, near to the
Prehistoric and Antiquity Mediterraneans, or briefly, of the Berber of
Africa." [Balout, et al. (1985) 383.]

It is interesting to note the link to the North African Berbers: some
Berber tribes, such as the Riffians of the Atlas Mountains, have
incidences of blondism reaching almost 60%, and they have a percentage
of red-haired people which is comparable to that of the Irish. [Coon &
Hunt (1966) 116-117.]

These facts have not only anthropological interest however, but also
great symbolic importance. In ancient Egypt, the god Seth was said to
have been red-haired, and redheads were claimed to have worshipped the
god devoutly. [Wainwright (1938) 31, 33, 53.] In the Ramesses study
cited above, the Egyptologist Desroches-Noblecourt wrote an essay, in
which she discussed the importance of Ramesses' rufous condition. She
noted that the Ramessides (the family of Ramesses II), were devoted to
Seth, with several bearing the name Seti, which means "beloved of
Seth". She concluded that the Ramessides believed themselves to be
divine descendants of Seth, with their red hair as proof of their
lineage; they may even have used this peculiar physical feature to
propel themselves out of obscurity, and onto the throne of the
Pharaohs. Desroches-Noblecourt also speculated that Ramesses II may
well have been descended from a long line of redheads. [Balout, et al.
(1985) 388-391.]

Her speculations have been proved correct: Dr. Joann Fletcher, a
consultant to the British Bioanthropology Foundation, has proved that
Seti I (the father of Ramesses II), had red hair. [Parks (2000).] It
has also been demonstrated that the mummy of Pharaoh Siptah (a
great-grandson of Ramesses II), has red hair. [Partridge (1994) 169.]

We may also note the anthropological description of Ramesses' mummy,
which was written by the Biblical historian Archibald Sayce:

"The Nineteenth Dynasty to which Ramses II, the oppressor of the
Israelites, belonged, is distinguished by its marked dolichocephalism
of long-headedness. His mummy shows an index of 74, while the face is
an oval with an index of 103. The nose is prominent, but leptorrhine
and aquiline, and the jaws are orthognathous. The chin is broad, the
neck long, like the fingers and nails. The great king seems to have
had red hair." [Sayce (1925) 136.]

All of these features are characteristics of the Nordic race. [Günther
(1927) 10-23.] Finally, we should note that Professor Raymond Dart
declared that the Nordic race was the "Egyptian Pharaonic type". He
then went on to state specifically, that the head of Ramesses II is
"pelasgic ellipsoidal or Nordic" in type. [Dart (1939).]

Afrocentrism

It is the central contention of this study, that Ramesses II was not
only White, but that he was a fair-skinned, fair-haired, racially
Nordish individual. If it were truly possible to prove that Ramesses
was indeed black, this particular point of view would have to be
reconsidered.

The idea that the Ancient Egyptians in general (and their aristocracy
in particular), were predominantly black-skinned, woolly-haired,
essentially African people, was most vigorously promoted by the
Senegalese scholar, Cheikh Anta Diop (1923-1986). He was the foremost
proponent of a series of doctrines and beliefs that have subsequently
become known as "Afrocentrism." [Howe (1998).] One of Diop's numerous
claims, was that Ramesses II was Negroid, and that this "fact" could
be proved easily. Thus, Diop remarked:

"the Egyptians were Blacks of the type of all the native people of
tropical Africa. That is particularly true when it concerns Ramses II,
his father Seti I and Thutmose III." [Diop (1987) 217.]

One of Diop's major contentions, was that Ramesses II had woolly hair.
He believed that this point was proved by a famous granite portrait
statue of Ramesses, which currently resides in the Egyptian Museum of
Turin, Italy. In his book The African Origin of Civilization, Diop
reproduced two photographs, one of the statue, the other of a Negroid
Watusi, underneath which he placed the following remarks:

Pharaoh Ramses II (top), and a modern Watusi. The Watusi hair-do
can be conceived only for woolly hair. The small circles on the
Pharaoh's helmet represent frizzy hair (as noted by Denise Cappart in
her article in Reflet du Monde, 1956).

[Diop (1974) 19.]

However, Ramesses' head is crowned not with woolly hair, but a helmet.
Peter Clayton has noted, that in this depiction of the Pharaoh,
Ramesses wears a distinctive crown. [Clayton (1995) 146.] Clayton has
referred to this particular piece of head-wear as:

"the helmet-like khepresh, the so-called Blue or War Crown."
[Clayton (1995) 118.]

Therefore, the spirals that are detectable on the statue, represent
decoration on a helmet, not woolly hair. This point is further
confirmed by the fact that in coloured depictions, the crown is
painted blue, hence its name: the Blue Crown. [Geddes & Grosset (1997)
435.] It would never be this hue, if the paintings were meant to
represent hair. It would appear that the distinctive Blue Crown was
made from leather, and that it was invested with great ceremonial
significance: it seems to have represented the Pharaoh's supremacy
over the earthly realm. [Desroches-Noblecourt (1972) 128-132.]
Equally, the uraeus (hooded cobra), which protrudes from the front of
the crown, as well as the clearly delineated bands that mark the edges
of the helmet, all reveal that the head-hair is covered. Exactly what
the circles that cover the surface of the Blue Crown are supposed to
represent, is debateable, but it has been suggested by F. D. P.
Whicker, that they are meant to imitate the markings of a carapace
(tortoise shell), this being the material from which, he believes, the
original helmets were manufactured. [Whicker (1990).]

In addition to this, we should note the findings of the study that was
performed upon the hair of Ramesses' mummy. It is possible to
determine the race of an individual by taking a single hair from their
head, and studying the structure of it. When observed in transverse
section, the wavy scalp-hair of a Caucasoid is oval, or rather widely
elliptic in shape, with the least diameter amounting to about 70% of
the greatest. In contrast, the spiralled, woolly hair of a Negroid
individual, is narrowly elliptical in shape, with the lesser axis of
the ellipse being rather less than half the greater. [Baker (1974)
208, 296-297, 308.] The team of scholars that studied the hair of
Ramesses II, under the direction of Professor Ceccaldi, noted that
when seen in cross-section, the structure of the hair was oval in
shape, and therefore concluded that Ramesses had been cymotrich
(wavy-haired). [Balout, et al. (1985) 256.]

This clearly demonstrates that Ramesses did not have woolly hair, and
consequently, that the Turin portrait statue does not prove that
Ramesses was black. In terms of evidence evaluation, the results
produced from a study of Ramesses' mortal remains, are of higher value
than any amount of conclusions that have been drawn only from
portraits. Therefore, Diop's claims are completely baseless.

Red-Haired Ramesses

We would perhaps do well to end with the conclusions of the research
team that investigated Ramesses' hair:

"Ramses IId mummy's hair is confined to a temporo-occipital zone
which corresponds to an advanced stage of baldness.

Hairs are slightly crimped and show an oval cross-section, the
great axis of which lies between 60 and 70 µm: they are specific of «a
cymotrich leucoderm».

The sample which was investigated comprised identical percentages
of fully depigmented and pigmented hairs, the overall colour being a
light fair red with some tendency towards yellow.

Although the microscope examination was able to show strong
evidence of red pigments, no evidence of possible «fair» pigments was
obtained: the latter might be present as a «diffuse» component which
could be masked by a faint yellow dye (probably arising from dilute
«Henne» or one of its derivatives)." [Balout, et al. (1985) 256.]

Bibliography

Baker, J. R. (1974) Race (London: Oxford University Press).

Balout, L., C. Roubet & C. Desroches-Noblecourt [eds.] (1985) La Momie
de Ramsès II: Contribution Scientifique à l'Égyptologie (Paris:
Éditions Recherche sur les Civilisations).

Clayton, P. A. (1995) Chronicle of the Pharaohs: The Reign-by-Reign
Record of the Rulers and Dynasties of Ancient Egypt (London: Thames &
Hudson).

Coon, C. S. & E. E. Hunt (1966) The Living Races of Man (London:
Jonathan Cape).

Dart, R. A. (1939) "Population Fluctuation over 7,000 Years in Egypt."
Transactions of the Royal Society of South Africa, XXVII, 95-145.

Desroches-Noblecourt, C. [Claude, trans.] (1972) Tutankhamen: Life and
Death of a Pharaoh (Harmondsworth: Penguin Books).

Diop, C. A. [M. Cook, trans.] (1974) The African Origin of
Civilization: Myth or Reality? (Westport: Lawrence Hill).

Diop, C. A. (1987) "Civilization or Barbarism: An Authentic
Anthropology." In Van Sertima & Williams (1987) 161-225.

Geddes & Grosset (1997) Ancient Egypt: Myth and History (New Lanark:
Geddes & Grosset).

Günther, H. F. K. [G. C. Wheeler, trans.] (1927) The Racial Elements
of European History (London: Methuen).

Howe, S. (1998) Afrocentrism: Mythical Pasts and Imagined Homes
(London: Verso).

Parks, L. (2000) "Ancient Egyptians Wore Wigs." Egypt Revealed, May 29.

Partridge, R. B. (19Redheaded Pharaoh Ramesses II
by
Karl Earlson
Pharaoh Ramesses II

Pharaoh Ramesses II (of the 19th Dynasty), is generally considered to
be the most powerful and influential King that ever reigned in Egypt.
He is one of the few rulers who has earned the epithet "the Great".
Subsequently, his racial origins are of extreme interest.

In 1975, the Egyptian government allowed the French to take Ramesses'
mummy to Paris for conservation work. Numerous other tests were
performed, to determine Ramesses' precise racial affinities, largely
because the Senegalese scholar Cheikh Anta Diop, was claiming at the
time that Ramesses was black. Once the work had been completed, the
mummy was returned in a hermetically sealed casket, and it has
remained largely hidden from public view ever since, concealed in the
bowels of the Cairo Museum. The results of the study were published in
a lavishly illustrated work, which was edited by L. Balout, C. Roubet
and C. Desroches-Noblecourt, and was titled La Momie de Ramsès II:
Contribution Scientifique à l'Égyptologie (1985).

Professor P. F. Ceccaldi, with a research team behind him, studied
some hairs which were removed from the mummy's scalp. Ramesses II was
90 years-old when he died, and his hair had turned white. Ceccaldi
determined that the reddish-yellow colour of the mummy's hair had been
brought about by its being dyed with a dilute henna solution; it
proved to be an example of the cosmetic attentions of the embalmers.
However, traces of the hair's original colour (in youth), remain in
the roots, even into advanced old age. Microscopic examinations proved
that the hair roots contained traces of natural red pigments, and that
therefore, during his youth, Ramesses II had been red-haired. It was
concluded that these red pigments did not result from the hair somehow
fading, or otherwise altering post-mortem, but did indeed represent
Ramesses' natural hair colour. Ceccaldi also studied a cross-section
of the hairs, and he determined from their oval shape, that Ramesses
had been "cymotrich" (wavy-haired). Finally, he stated that such a
combination of features showed that Ramesses had been a "leucoderm"
(white-skinned person). [Balout, et al. (1985) 254-257.]

Balout and Roubet were under no illusions as to the significance of
this discovery, and they concluded as follows:

"After having achieved this immense work, an important scientific
conclusion remains to be drawn: the anthropological study and the
microscopic analysis of hair, carried out by four laboratories:
Judiciary Medecine (Professor Ceccaldi), Société L'Oréal, Atomic
Energy Commission, and Institut Textile de France showed that Ramses
II was a 'leucoderm', that is a fair-skinned man, near to the
Prehistoric and Antiquity Mediterraneans, or briefly, of the Berber of
Africa." [Balout, et al. (1985) 383.]

It is interesting to note the link to the North African Berbers: some
Berber tribes, such as the Riffians of the Atlas Mountains, have
incidences of blondism reaching almost 60%, and they have a percentage
of red-haired people which is comparable to that of the Irish. [Coon &
Hunt (1966) 116-117.]

These facts have not only anthropological interest however, but also
great symbolic importance. In ancient Egypt, the god Seth was said to
have been red-haired, and redheads were claimed to have worshipped the
god devoutly. [Wainwright (1938) 31, 33, 53.] In the Ramesses study
cited above, the Egyptologist Desroches-Noblecourt wrote an essay, in
which she discussed the importance of Ramesses' rufous condition. She
noted that the Ramessides (the family of Ramesses II), were devoted to
Seth, with several bearing the name Seti, which means "beloved of
Seth". She concluded that the Ramessides believed themselves to be
divine descendants of Seth, with their red hair as proof of their
lineage; they may even have used this peculiar physical feature to
propel themselves out of obscurity, and onto the throne of the
Pharaohs. Desroches-Noblecourt also speculated that Ramesses II may
well have been descended from a long line of redheads. [Balout, et al.
(1985) 388-391.]

Her speculations have been proved correct: Dr. Joann Fletcher, a
consultant to the British Bioanthropology Foundation, has proved that
Seti I (the father of Ramesses II), had red hair. [Parks (2000).] It
has also been demonstrated that the mummy of Pharaoh Siptah (a
great-grandson of Ramesses II), has red hair. [Partridge (1994) 169.]

We may also note the anthropological description of Ramesses' mummy,
which was written by the Biblical historian Archibald Sayce:

"The Nineteenth Dynasty to which Ramses II, the oppressor of the
Israelites, belonged, is distinguished by its marked dolichocephalism
of long-headedness. His mummy shows an index of 74, while the face is
an oval with an index of 103. The nose is prominent, but leptorrhine
and aquiline, and the jaws are orthognathous. The chin is broad, the
neck long, like the fingers and nails. The great king seems to have
had red hair." [Sayce (1925) 136.]

All of these features are characteristics of the Nordic race. [Günther
(1927) 10-23.] Finally, we should note that Professor Raymond Dart
declared that the Nordic race was the "Egyptian Pharaonic type". He
then went on to state specifically, that the head of Ramesses II is
"pelasgic ellipsoidal or Nordic" in type. [Dart (1939).]

Afrocentrism

It is the central contention of this study, that Ramesses II was not
only White, but that he was a fair-skinned, fair-haired, racially
Nordish individual. If it were truly possible to prove that Ramesses
was indeed black, this particular point of view would have to be
reconsidered.

The idea that the Ancient Egyptians in general (and their aristocracy
in particular), were predominantly black-skinned, woolly-haired,
essentially African people, was most vigorously promoted by the
Senegalese scholar, Cheikh Anta Diop (1923-1986). He was the foremost
proponent of a series of doctrines and beliefs that have subsequently
become known as "Afrocentrism." [Howe (1998).] One of Diop's numerous
claims, was that Ramesses II was Negroid, and that this "fact" could
be proved easily. Thus, Diop remarked:

"the Egyptians were Blacks of the type of all the native people of
tropical Africa. That is particularly true when it concerns Ramses II,
his father Seti I and Thutmose III." [Diop (1987) 217.]

One of Diop's major contentions, was that Ramesses II had woolly hair.
He believed that this point was proved by a famous granite portrait
statue of Ramesses, which currently resides in the Egyptian Museum of
Turin, Italy. In his book The African Origin of Civilization, Diop
reproduced two photographs, one of the statue, the other of a Negroid
Watusi, underneath which he placed the following remarks:

Pharaoh Ramses II (top), and a modern Watusi. The Watusi hair-do
can be conceived only for woolly hair. The small circles on the
Pharaoh's helmet represent frizzy hair (as noted by Denise Cappart in
her article in Reflet du Monde, 1956).

[Diop (1974) 19.]

However, Ramesses' head is crowned not with woolly hair, but a helmet.
Peter Clayton has noted, that in this depiction of the Pharaoh,
Ramesses wears a distinctive crown. [Clayton (1995) 146.] Clayton has
referred to this particular piece of head-wear as:

"the helmet-like khepresh, the so-called Blue or War Crown."
[Clayton (1995) 118.]

Therefore, the spirals that are detectable on the statue, represent
decoration on a helmet, not woolly hair. This point is further
confirmed by the fact that in coloured depictions, the crown is
painted blue, hence its name: the Blue Crown. [Geddes & Grosset (1997)
435.] It would never be this hue, if the paintings were meant to
represent hair. It would appear that the distinctive Blue Crown was
made from leather, and that it was invested with great ceremonial
significance: it seems to have represented the Pharaoh's supremacy
over the earthly realm. [Desroches-Noblecourt (1972) 128-132.]
Equally, the uraeus (hooded cobra), which protrudes from the front of
the crown, as well as the clearly delineated bands that mark the edges
of the helmet, all reveal that the head-hair is covered. Exactly what
the circles that cover the surface of the Blue Crown are supposed to
represent, is debateable, but it has been suggested by F. D. P.
Whicker, that they are meant to imitate the markings of a carapace
(tortoise shell), this being the material from which, he believes, the
original helmets were manufactured. [Whicker (1990).]

In addition to this, we should note the findings of the study that was
performed upon the hair of Ramesses' mummy. It is possible to
determine the race of an individual by taking a single hair from their
head, and studying the structure of it. When observed in transverse
section, the wavy scalp-hair of a Caucasoid is oval, or rather widely
elliptic in shape, with the least diameter amounting to about 70% of
the greatest. In contrast, the spiralled, woolly hair of a Negroid
individual, is narrowly elliptical in shape, with the lesser axis of
the ellipse being rather less than half the greater. [Baker (1974)
208, 296-297, 308.] The team of scholars that studied the hair of
Ramesses II, under the direction of Professor Ceccaldi, noted that
when seen in cross-section, the structure of the hair was oval in
shape, and therefore concluded that Ramesses had been cymotrich
(wavy-haired). [Balout, et al. (1985) 256.]

This clearly demonstrates that Ramesses did not have woolly hair, and
consequently, that the Turin portrait statue does not prove that
Ramesses was black. In terms of evidence evaluation, the results
produced from a study of Ramesses' mortal remains, are of higher value
than any amount of conclusions that have been drawn only from
portraits. Therefore, Diop's claims are completely baseless.

Red-Haired Ramesses

We would perhaps do well to end with the conclusions of the research
team that investigated Ramesses' hair:

"Ramses IId mummy's hair is confined to a temporo-occipital zone
which corresponds to an advanced stage of baldness.

Hairs are slightly crimped and show an oval cross-section, the
great axis of which lies between 60 and 70 µm: they are specific of «a
cymotrich leucoderm».

The sample which was investigated comprised identical percentages
of fully depigmented and pigmented hairs, the overall colour being a
light fair red with some tendency towards yellow.

Although the microscope examination was able to show strong
evidence of red pigments, no evidence of possible «fair» pigments was
obtained: the latter might be present as a «diffuse» component which
could be masked by a faint yellow dye (probably arising from dilute
«Henne» or one of its derivatives)." [Balout, et al. (1985) 256.]

Bibliography

Baker, J. R. (1974) Race (London: Oxford University Press).

Balout, L., C. Roubet & C. Desroches-Noblecourt [eds.] (1985) La Momie
de Ramsès II: Contribution Scientifique à l'Égyptologie (Paris:
Éditions Recherche sur les Civilisations).

Clayton, P. A. (1995) Chronicle of the Pharaohs: The Reign-by-Reign
Record of the Rulers and Dynasties of Ancient Egypt (London: Thames &
Hudson).

Coon, C. S. & E. E. Hunt (1966) The Living Races of Man (London:
Jonathan Cape).

Dart, R. A. (1939) "Population Fluctuation over 7,000 Years in Egypt."
Transactions of the Royal Society of South Africa, XXVII, 95-145.

Desroches-Noblecourt, C. [Claude, trans.] (1972) Tutankhamen: Life and
Death of a Pharaoh (Harmondsworth: Penguin Books).

Diop, C. A. [M. Cook, trans.] (1974) The African Origin of
Civilization: Myth or Reality? (Westport: Lawrence Hill).

Diop, C. A. (1987) "Civilization or Barbarism: An Authentic
Anthropology." In Van Sertima & Williams (1987) 161-225.

Geddes & Grosset (1997) Ancient Egypt: Myth and History (New Lanark:
Geddes & Grosset).

Günther, H. F. K. [G. C. Wheeler, trans.] (1927) The Racial Elements
of European History (London: Methuen).

Howe, S. (1998) Afrocentrism: Mythical Pasts and Imagined Homes
(London: Verso).

Parks, L. (2000) "Ancient Egyptians Wore Wigs." Egypt Revealed, May 29.

Partridge, R. B. (1994) Faces of Pharaohs: Royal Mummies and Coffins
From Ancient Thebes (London: Rubicon Press).

Sayce, A. H. (1925) The Races of the Old Testament (London: Religious
Tract Society).

Van Sertima, I. & L. Williams [eds.] (1987) Great African Thinkers,
Volume I: Cheikh Anta Diop (New Brunswick: Transaction Books).

Wainwright, G. A. (1938) The Sky-Religion in Egypt: Its Antiquity and
Effects (Cambridge: University Press).

Whicker, F. D. P. (1990) Egypt and the Mountains of the Moon
(Braunton: Merlin Books).94) Faces of Pharaohs: Royal Mummies and
Coffins From Ancient Thebes (London: Rubicon Press).

Sayce, A. H. (1925) The Races of the Old Testament (London: Religious
Tract Society).

Van Sertima, I. & L. Williams [eds.] (1987) Great African Thinkers,
Volume I: Cheikh Anta Diop (New Brunswick: Transaction Books).

Wainwright, G. A. (1938) The Sky-Religion in Egypt: Its Antiquity and
Effects (Cambridge: University Press).

Whicker, F. D. P. (1990) Egypt and the Mountains of the Moon
(Braunton: Merlin Books).

Redheaded Pharaoh Ramesses II
by
Karl Earlson
Pharaoh Ramesses II

Pharaoh Ramesses II (of the 19th Dynasty), is generally considered to
be the most powerful and influential King that ever reigned in Egypt.
He is one of the few rulers who has earned the epithet "the Great".
Subsequently, his racial origins are of extreme interest.

In 1975, the Egyptian government allowed the French to take Ramesses'
mummy to Paris for conservation work. Numerous other tests were
performed, to determine Ramesses' precise racial affinities, largely
because the Senegalese scholar Cheikh Anta Diop, was claiming at the
time that Ramesses was black. Once the work had been completed, the
mummy was returned in a hermetically sealed casket, and it has
remained largely hidden from public view ever since, concealed in the
bowels of the Cairo Museum. The results of the study were published in
a lavishly illustrated work, which was edited by L. Balout, C. Roubet
and C. Desroches-Noblecourt, and was titled La Momie de Ramsès II:
Contribution Scientifique à l'Égyptologie (1985).

Professor P. F. Ceccaldi, with a research team behind him, studied
some hairs which were removed from the mummy's scalp. Ramesses II was
90 years-old when he died, and his hair had turned white. Ceccaldi
determined that the reddish-yellow colour of the mummy's hair had been
brought about by its being dyed with a dilute henna solution; it
proved to be an example of the cosmetic attentions of the embalmers.
However, traces of the hair's original colour (in youth), remain in
the roots, even into advanced old age. Microscopic examinations proved
that the hair roots contained traces of natural red pigments, and that
therefore, during his youth, Ramesses II had been red-haired. It was
concluded that these red pigments did not result from the hair somehow
fading, or otherwise altering post-mortem, but did indeed represent
Ramesses' natural hair colour. Ceccaldi also studied a cross-section
of the hairs, and he determined from their oval shape, that Ramesses
had been "cymotrich" (wavy-haired). Finally, he stated that such a
combination of features showed that Ramesses had been a "leucoderm"
(white-skinned person). [Balout, et al. (1985) 254-257.]

Balout and Roubet were under no illusions as to the significance of
this discovery, and they concluded as follows:

"After having achieved this immense work, an important scientific
conclusion remains to be drawn: the anthropological study and the
microscopic analysis of hair, carried out by four laboratories:
Judiciary Medecine (Professor Ceccaldi), Société L'Oréal, Atomic
Energy Commission, and Institut Textile de France showed that Ramses
II was a 'leucoderm', that is a fair-skinned man, near to the
Prehistoric and Antiquity Mediterraneans, or briefly, of the Berber of
Africa." [Balout, et al. (1985) 383.]

It is interesting to note the link to the North African Berbers: some
Berber tribes, such as the Riffians of the Atlas Mountains, have
incidences of blondism reaching almost 60%, and they have a percentage
of red-haired people which is comparable to that of the Irish. [Coon &
Hunt (1966) 116-117.]

These facts have not only anthropological interest however, but also
great symbolic importance. In ancient Egypt, the god Seth was said to
have been red-haired, and redheads were claimed to have worshipped the
god devoutly. [Wainwright (1938) 31, 33, 53.] In the Ramesses study
cited above, the Egyptologist Desroches-Noblecourt wrote an essay, in
which she discussed the importance of Ramesses' rufous condition. She
noted that the Ramessides (the family of Ramesses II), were devoted to
Seth, with several bearing the name Seti, which means "beloved of
Seth". She concluded that the Ramessides believed themselves to be
divine descendants of Seth, with their red hair as proof of their
lineage; they may even have used this peculiar physical feature to
propel themselves out of obscurity, and onto the throne of the
Pharaohs. Desroches-Noblecourt also speculated that Ramesses II may
well have been descended from a long line of redheads. [Balout, et al.
(1985) 388-391.]

Her speculations have been proved correct: Dr. Joann Fletcher, a
consultant to the British Bioanthropology Foundation, has proved that
Seti I (the father of Ramesses II), had red hair. [Parks (2000).] It
has also been demonstrated that the mummy of Pharaoh Siptah (a
great-grandson of Ramesses II), has red hair. [Partridge (1994) 169.]

We may also note the anthropological description of Ramesses' mummy,
which was written by the Biblical historian Archibald Sayce:

"The Nineteenth Dynasty to which Ramses II, the oppressor of the
Israelites, belonged, is distinguished by its marked dolichocephalism
of long-headedness. His mummy shows an index of 74, while the face is
an oval with an index of 103. The nose is prominent, but leptorrhine
and aquiline, and the jaws are orthognathous. The chin is broad, the
neck long, like the fingers and nails. The great king seems to have
had red hair." [Sayce (1925) 136.]

All of these features are characteristics of the Nordic race. [Günther
(1927) 10-23.] Finally, we should note that Professor Raymond Dart
declared that the Nordic race was the "Egyptian Pharaonic type". He
then went on to state specifically, that the head of Ramesses II is
"pelasgic ellipsoidal or Nordic" in type. [Dart (1939).]

Afrocentrism

It is the central contention of this study, that Ramesses II was not
only White, but that he was a fair-skinned, fair-haired, racially
Nordish individual. If it were truly possible to prove that Ramesses
was indeed black, this particular point of view would have to be
reconsidered.

The idea that the Ancient Egyptians in general (and their aristocracy
in particular), were predominantly black-skinned, woolly-haired,
essentially African people, was most vigorously promoted by the
Senegalese scholar, Cheikh Anta Diop (1923-1986). He was the foremost
proponent of a series of doctrines and beliefs that have subsequently
become known as "Afrocentrism." [Howe (1998).] One of Diop's numerous
claims, was that Ramesses II was Negroid, and that this "fact" could
be proved easily. Thus, Diop remarked:

"the Egyptians were Blacks of the type of all the native people of
tropical Africa. That is particularly true when it concerns Ramses II,
his father Seti I and Thutmose III." [Diop (1987) 217.]

One of Diop's major contentions, was that Ramesses II had woolly hair.
He believed that this point was proved by a famous granite portrait
statue of Ramesses, which currently resides in the Egyptian Museum of
Turin, Italy. In his book The African Origin of Civilization, Diop
reproduced two photographs, one of the statue, the other of a Negroid
Watusi, underneath which he placed the following remarks:

Pharaoh Ramses II (top), and a modern Watusi. The Watusi hair-do
can be conceived only for woolly hair. The small circles on the
Pharaoh's helmet represent frizzy hair (as noted by Denise Cappart in
her article in Reflet du Monde, 1956).

[Diop (1974) 19.]

However, Ramesses' head is crowned not with woolly hair, but a helmet.
Peter Clayton has noted, that in this depiction of the Pharaoh,
Ramesses wears a distinctive crown. [Clayton (1995) 146.] Clayton has
referred to this particular piece of head-wear as:

"the helmet-like khepresh, the so-called Blue or War Crown."
[Clayton (1995) 118.]

Therefore, the spirals that are detectable on the statue, represent
decoration on a helmet, not woolly hair. This point is further
confirmed by the fact that in coloured depictions, the crown is
painted blue, hence its name: the Blue Crown. [Geddes & Grosset (1997)
435.] It would never be this hue, if the paintings were meant to
represent hair. It would appear that the distinctive Blue Crown was
made from leather, and that it was invested with great ceremonial
significance: it seems to have represented the Pharaoh's supremacy
over the earthly realm. [Desroches-Noblecourt (1972) 128-132.]
Equally, the uraeus (hooded cobra), which protrudes from the front of
the crown, as well as the clearly delineated bands that mark the edges
of the helmet, all reveal that the head-hair is covered. Exactly what
the circles that cover the surface of the Blue Crown are supposed to
represent, is debateable, but it has been suggested by F. D. P.
Whicker, that they are meant to imitate the markings of a carapace
(tortoise shell), this being the material from which, he believes, the
original helmets were manufactured. [Whicker (1990).]

In addition to this, we should note the findings of the study that was
performed upon the hair of Ramesses' mummy. It is possible to
determine the race of an individual by taking a single hair from their
head, and studying the structure of it. When observed in transverse
section, the wavy scalp-hair of a Caucasoid is oval, or rather widely
elliptic in shape, with the least diameter amounting to about 70% of
the greatest. In contrast, the spiralled, woolly hair of a Negroid
individual, is narrowly elliptical in shape, with the lesser axis of
the ellipse being rather less than half the greater. [Baker (1974)
208, 296-297, 308.] The team of scholars that studied the hair of
Ramesses II, under the direction of Professor Ceccaldi, noted that
when seen in cross-section, the structure of the hair was oval in
shape, and therefore concluded that Ramesses had been cymotrich
(wavy-haired). [Balout, et al. (1985) 256.]

This clearly demonstrates that Ramesses did not have woolly hair, and
consequently, that the Turin portrait statue does not prove that
Ramesses was black. In terms of evidence evaluation, the results
produced from a study of Ramesses' mortal remains, are of higher value
than any amount of conclusions that have been drawn only from
portraits. Therefore, Diop's claims are completely baseless.

Red-Haired Ramesses

We would perhaps do well to end with the conclusions of the research
team that investigated Ramesses' hair:

"Ramses IId mummy's hair is confined to a temporo-occipital zone
which corresponds to an advanced stage of baldness.

Hairs are slightly crimped and show an oval cross-section, the
great axis of which lies between 60 and 70 µm: they are specific of «a
cymotrich leucoderm».

The sample which was investigated comprised identical percentages
of fully depigmented and pigmented hairs, the overall colour being a
light fair red with some tendency towards yellow.

Although the microscope examination was able to show strong
evidence of red pigments, no evidence of possible «fair» pigments was
obtained: the latter might be present as a «diffuse» component which
could be masked by a faint yellow dye (probably arising from dilute
«Henne» or one of its derivatives)." [Balout, et al. (1985) 256.]

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